early Christianity

New Approaches to the Study of Apostasy and Religious Mobility in Roman Empire

Aleksey Dmitrievich Panteleev PhD in History, associate professor, Saint Petersburg State University, Institute of History (7/9 Universitetskaya nab., Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia)
a.panteleev@spbu.ru

Panteleev A. D. New Approaches to the Study of Apostasy and Religious Mobility in Roman Empire, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], pp. 374–399.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2025-14-338-368

Language: Russian

This article analyzes new approaches to the study of apostasy and attempts to determine which of them are applicable to the analysis of religious mobility in the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th centuries AD, primarily for the study of the history of early Christianity. Our study is based on a recently published collective monograph devoted to the problems of apostasy from various religious teachings and religion in general (Handbook of Leaving Religion / Ed. by Daniel Enstedt, Goeran Larsson, Teemu Mantsinen. Leiden: Brill, 2020). Several preliminary comments are made on terminology, sources, and fundamental differences between the beginning of the new era and the turn of the 20th–21st centuries, then historical, geographical and demographic, statistical, sociological, psychological, narrative and autobiographical, media and communication approaches are sequentially considered. The main problem with applying these methods lies in the available sources on apostates in the early centuries: about a dozen works mentioning apostates, most of which are limited to brief condemnations of such individuals. The goal of church authors was not to describe or describe apostates, but to combat the phenomenon of apostasy itself and discourage fellow believers from even considering it. There is little insight into the mentality of those who fell away; at best, we can learn how their former comrades spoke of them. Nevertheless, some of the observations made using these methods are undoubtedly interesting. In our view, the most promising approaches are the sociological, historical, geographical, and narrative ones.

Key words: early Christianity, Roman Empire, persecutions, apostasy, hagiography, historical research methods

URL: https://rcs-almanac.ru/panteleev2025-en/

Additions of Jerome the Blessed to the Chronological Tables of Eusebius of Caesareahizhniakova

pdf

Sergey Mikhailovich Zhestokanov PhD in History, assistant professor, Institute of History (Mendeleevskaya linia, 5, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 199034)
s.zhestokanov@spbu.ru

Zhestokanov S. M. Additions of Jerome the Blessed to the Chronological Tables of Eusebius of Caesareahizhniakova, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2024, vol. 13, pp. 356–379.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2024-13-356-379

Language: Russian

The Chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea ends with an account of the events of the twentieth year of the reign of Emperor Constantine I the Great (325 AD). Jerome the Blessed, the famous Christian theologian and writer, creator of the canonical Latin text of the Bible, continued the work of his predecessor up to the famous Battle of Adrianople (378 AD). In this work the author offers his translation of the additions made by Jerome. The translation is based on the edition: Eusebius Werke Bd 7. Tl 1. Die Chronik des Hieronymus: Hieronymi Chronicon / Hrsg. von R. Helm. Leipzig, 1913.

Key words: Eusebius of Caesarea, Jerome the Blessed, early Christianity, chronology

URL: https://rcs-almanac.ru/zhestokanov-jerome-2024-en/

The History of Early Christianity in the Chronological Tables of Eusebius of Caesarea

pdf

Sergey Mikhailovich Zhestokanov PhD in History, assistant professor, Institute of History (Mendeleevskaya linia, 5, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 199034)
s.zhestokanov@spbu.ru

Zhestokanov S. M. The History of Early Christianity in the Chronological Tables of Eusebius of Caesarea, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2024, vol. 13, pp. 314–355.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2024-13-314-355

Language: Russian

In the study of any historical period, chronology of events plays a great role. The Chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea is very important for the study of the history of early Christianity. In this paper, the author proposes his translation of the part of the Jerome’s version of the Chronicle, which contains information on events of the history of early Christianity. The translation is made by: Eusebius Werke Bd 7. Tl 1. Die Chronik des Hieronymus: Hieronymi Chronicon / Hrsg. von R. Helm. Leipzig, 1913.

Key words: Eusebius of Caesarea, early Christianity, chronology

URL: https://rcs-almanac.ru/zhestokanov-eusebius-2024-en/

Parable of the Young Rich Man and Christ: the use in the early Christian tradition

pdf

Egor Sergeevich Leontiev research assistant, Saint Petersburg State University, Institute of History (7/9 Universitetskaya emb., Saint Petersburg, Russia, 199034)
st077180@student.spbu.ru

Leontiev E. S. Parable of the Young Rich Man and Christ: the use in the early Christian tradition, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2023, vol. 12, pp. 100–111.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2023-12-100-111

Language: Russian

The article examines the gospel parable about the rich young man and Christ. Special attention is paid to how the parable is presented in the gospel texts themselves (from Matthew, Mark and Luke) — what are the common places and what are the differences: how is the interlocutor of Christ articulated, what should he do to get into the Kingdom of Heaven, wealth prevents this or not? The differences in interpretations of this story seem to have determined further lines of discussion about financial status of members of Christian communities, about acceptable and unacceptable behavior. The text analyzes how the apologists of the 1–3rd centuries AD (for example, Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian of Carthage, etc.) refer to this material. Special attention is paid to how the various contexts in which the apologists existed determined their interpretation, their goals and objectives. We also tried to highlight the intellectual traditions that have developed around the understanding of wealth/poverty, to trace the ideological continuity within them and to show their relationship with other issues of early Christian thought (for example, about the nature of the soul).

Key words: parable of the young rich man, early Christianity, poverty, wealth, Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/en/en-leontiev-2023/

«Wealth is like a Snake»: Money, Martyrdom, Apostasy and Struggle for Power in Early Christian Tradition (1st – early 4th century)

pdf

Aleksey Dmitrievich Panteleev phd in history, associate professor, Saint Petersburg State University, Institute of History (7/9 Universitetskaya nab., Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia)
a.panteleev@spbu.ru

Panteleev A. V. «Wealth is like a Snake»: Money, Martyrdom, Apostasy and Struggle for Power in Early Christian Tradition (1st – early 4th century), Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2023, vol. 12, pp. 180–201.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2022-11-174-193

Language: Russian

The article is devoted to the consideration of questions about how Church writers of the 1st – beginning of the 4th century perceived wealthy Christians, place of the rich Christians in the life of the community, and what dangers were associated with the possession of wealth. Main sources for analysis are the writings of the New Testament, the «Shepherd» of Hermas, the works of Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian and Eusebius of Caesarea. The accusation of rich Christians of a tendency to apostasy, both during persecution and tranquility, is studied. For all these authors, the possession of wealth is a problem. In peace time, wealth distracts from the salvation of the soul and weakens faith, creating the illusion of well-being and security, and forces you to communicate with pagans beyond measure. In times of persecution, wealth tempts you to defect. This attitude is based on their personal practical experience. But apostasy was not the only cause of concern for church hierarchs and intellectuals. The rich Christians could disrupt the normal course of community life, demand special treatment for themselves because of the benefits they provided. There was also a second reason for dissatisfaction with the rich within the community — insubordination to the church authorities. If a rich layman was not satisfied with his position, he could strive for leadership by taking on the role of a priest, or move to a heretical group where it was easier to achieve the desired position. Finally, he could simply loosen his ties with the church without severing them completely.

Key words: early Christianity, Roman Empire, wealth, poverty, persecution, apostasy

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/en/en-panteleev-2023/

Spiritual and Literary Precursors of Christian Writers in Roman North Africa: Urban Specifics

pdf

Alekaey Vital’evich Kargaltsev phd in history, senior lecturer, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia (R. Moika nab., 48/20a, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 191186)
akargaltsev@herzen.spb.ru

Kargaltsev A. V. Spiritual and Literary Precursors of Christian Writers in Roman North Africa: Urban Specifics, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2023, vol. 12, pp. 202–215.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2023-12-202-215

Language: Russian

The article is devoted to the analysis of the Greco-Roman philosophical and literary tradition, which is based on the largest Christian writers of Roman North Africa: Tertullian, Cyprian of Carthage and Arnobius as well as the educational system of Carthage in the 3rd century. Based on the material studied, it is concluded that, firstly, it is appropriate to speak not only about the broad regional specifics along the Greek EastLatin West line, but also about the features of the urban environment. It can be noted that in the study of the education system in the Roman Empire, Carthage is traditionally in the shadows, but the city had a strong rhetorical school that trained personnel for the entire region. Secondly, in the works of African Christian writers there is a certain ideological unity, which can be described as a commitment to a materialistic picture of the world, close to the philosophy of stoicism, which was based, it seems, on the unity of the educational space to which Christian authors belonged. At the same time, they themselves differ in origin and social status, their characters and literary temperament are different, their attitude to Greco-Roman philosophy is different as well as their interest in it. At the same time, the author of the article believes that the circle of their spiritual and literary predecessors generally coincides. These are the classics of Roman rhetoric — Varro, Cicero, Quintilian, and others, which to a certain extent leveled these differences. The influence of classical rhetoric can also be found in Christian criticism of traditional Roman paganism, which was a distinctive feature not only of church preaching, but also of individual philosophical schools.

Key words: early Christianity, Roman Empire, Carthage, education

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/en/en-kargaltsev-2023/

Epistle of Bishop John of Antioch to Firmus, Bishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia. Translation and commentary

pdf

Nikolay Andreevich Vinogradov phd student, junior researcher, department of historical and theoretical studies, (Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Leninsky Prospekt, 32А, 119334)
nicolayvin@gmail.com

Vinogradov N. A. Epistle of Bishop John of Antioch to Firmus, Bishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia. Translation and commentary, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2023, vol. 12, pp. 278–301.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2023-12-278-301

Language: Russian

The article examines the letter of John of Antioch to Firmus of Caesarea, in which the bishop of Antioch urges Firmus to take the side of the «Easterners» on the eve of the Council of Ephesus in 431. The letter was written in the midst of the intra-church conflict of the 5th century (so-called «Christological dispute»), which was based on the differences in views on the nature of Christ in the theological schools of the East. The aggravation of the conflict between the Alexandrian and Constantinople cathedrae in the early fifth century led to the formation of church-political «parties» holding opposing views. This is the first translation of the letter from Latin into Russian. It is accompanied by a historical and philological commentary that reveals the details of the formation of such «parties» and the peculiarities of the relationship between bishops with different points of view on Christology.

Key words: late Antiquity, Early Christianity, Late Antique Epistolography, Council of Ephesus, Christological dispute, Episcopate, Late Roman Empire

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/en/en-vinogradov-2023/

Slaves in early Christian communities basing on the North African hagiography

pdf

Alekaey Vital’evich Kargaltsev PhD in History, senior lecturer, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia (naberezhnaya reki Moiki, 48/20a, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 191186)
akargaltsev@herzen.spb.ru

Kargaltsev A. V. Slaves in early Christian communities basing on the North African hagiography, Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2022, vol. 11, pp. 150–159.

doi: 10.24412/2308-0698-2022-11-150-159

Language: Russian

The article is devoted to the analysis of the phenomenon of slavery in the writings of early Christian authors. The main attention is paid to hagiographic monuments, where the well-known maxim of the Apostle Paul that «there is neither slave nor free» (Gal. 3:28) is analyzed. It is seen not only in the traditional background of opposing the biblical ideal of social equality and the harsh truth of the life of ancient society, where slavery was the basis of economic life, but also in the light of the position of believers on the eve of suffering for the faith. This ideal seemed to find a comprehensive embodiment. It is noted that it was in the Church of North Africa, as Tertullian testifies, that the problem of slavery was no longer perceived as exclusively social and was leveled by the Christian faith. Slavery was condemned as such, since Christians themselves were servants of God, and in the pagan world it was no worse than all other social vices. The «Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity» mentions the slaves of Felicity and Revocat, but the content of the monument only emphasizes that their fate is one with their masters. In other hagiographic monuments of Roman Africa of the 3rd c. the social status of Christian heroes is completely ignored, which only emphasizes that only on the eve of martyrdom, being in prison, filled with sincere and deep faith, they could achieve the social ideal of the the Apostle Paul. Thus, the problem of the duality of social life, which obviously burdened the believers, is removed, which, among other things, explains both the popularity of martyrdom and Tertullian’s opinion that the real Church is the Church of martyrs.

Key words: earlier Christianity, hagiography, slavery, Roman Empire, North Africa

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/en/en-kargaltsev-2022/

The martydom of Potamiaena and Basilides (Eus. HE, VI, 5)

pdf

Aleksey Dmitrievich Panteleev, PhD in history, assistant professor, Institute of History, Saint-Petersburg State University (Mendeleevskaya linia, dom 5, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 199034)
a.panteleev@spbu.ru
alpant@hotmail.com

Panteleev A. D. The martydom of Potamiaena and Basilides (Eus. HE, VI, 5) , Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 100–115.

DOI: 10.24411/2308-0698-2012-00002

Language: Russian

The story about young woman Potamiaena, who lived in Alexandria, and the warrior Basilides was told by Eusebius of Caesarea in Church History (6, 5) and Palladius in Lausiac History (3). There’re some differences between these versions in the dating and circumstances, and Palladius said nothing about Basilides. Despite Palladius’ indication of the IV century, we think that both authors reported on the same Alexandrian martyr of the beginning of the 3rd century. These events could occur between 206 and 210; this is indicated by the name of the prefect of Egypt. The cruel execution of Potamiaena — her body was burned with boiling tar — although not characteristic for early martyrdoms, but it is not impossible. Neither Potamiaena nor Basilides were directly connected with Origen, but Eusebius included this story in his narrative about the youth of Alexandrian theologian. Particular attention was paid to the history of Basilides’ conversion and its comparison with a similar story in the Martyrdom of Perpetua. The history of Basilides’ conversion under the influence of a dream, when Potamiaena appeared to him, looks quite organic not only for the Christian, but also for the pagan tradition of that time. The voluntary confession of Christianity by Basilides wasn’t indicate of Montanism. This story is the first significant testimony of the martyrs of Alexandria and one of the few authentic narratives of the persecution of Christians before the start of the persecution of Decius.

Key words: early Christianity, hagiography, persecutions, Alexandria, Eusebius of Caesarea

Permanent link: //rcs-almanac.ru/panteleev-a-d-2012-en/

«Some of the heresies have a great many martyrs»: Martyrdom in the non-orthodox Christianity (II–III cent.)

pdf

Panteleev Alexey Dmitrievich, PhD, assistant professor, Institute of History, Saint-Petersburg State University (Saint-Petersburg, Russia)

a.panteleev@spbu.ru

alpant@hotmail.com

Panteleev A. D. «Some of the heresies have a great many martyrs»: Martyrdom in the non-orthodox Christianity (II–III cent.), Religiya. Tserkov’. Obshchestvo. Issledovaniya i publikatsii po teologii i religii [Religion. Church. Society: Research and publications in the field of theology and religious studies], Saint-Petersburg, 2014, vol. 3, pp. 234–249.

doi: 10.24411/2308-0698-2014-00011

Language: Russian

This article is a collection of evidences of Christian authors on martyrdom among the 2–3^rdcentury heretics. The main examined groups are Montanists (Quintus (Mart. Pol. 3), Themiso (Eus. HE V, 18, 5), Alexander (Eus. HE V, 18, 6), Eutychian (Mart. Pionii, 11, 2)), Marcionites (Metrodorus (Mart. Pionii, 21, 5–6; Eus. IV, 15, 46), Asclepius (Eus. Mart. Pal. 10, 3)), Monarchians (Praxeas (Tert. Adv. Prax. 1)) and the Gnostics. The first three groups recognized the importance of martyrdom; Gnostics, on the contrary, believed that it wasn’t necessary. Martyrdom played a important role in intra-Church controversy: the presence of the martyrs was to reliably evidence of a true doctrine. Orthodox historical and polemical tradition (Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius and others) preserved only a few names of martyrs among heretics and almost all references to them are provided with notes and comments aimed to humble their claim to title of martyr or confessor. It can be assumed that in reality their number was greater, and in the polemical literature belonging to heretical groups Church martyrs were similarly criticized. However, according to the author, appearance of Marcionites’ presbyter Metrodorus in “Martyrdom of Pionius” wasn’t due to internal church controversy, but disputes with the Jews. Jews tried to entice away fallen Christians, and this fact became reason for big and angry Pionius’ speech. Marcionites were in the same position, in addition, their doctrine originally was of anti-Jewish character. The presence of a common enemy can explain reference to Metrodorus and hint at his possible salvation (Mart. Pionii 21, 6).

Key words: early Christianity, persecutions, martyrdom, montanism, Marcion, gnosticism, polemic

URL: //rcs-almanac.ru/panteleev-2014-en/